Tuesday 1 June 2021

A list of lists

While reading for my forthcoming book I came across a lot of lists that authors had put together based on what we could say about teaching from the available evidence. I thought they were interesting but they didn't make it into the book. So here is a list of those lists. 

(There are some other interesting lists which are too long to include here. They include Swan's list of things he believes about language teaching, Thonrbury's 12 observations, and Hattie's list of principles.)

Mike Long (2014

  1. Use task, not text, as the unit of analysis 
  2. Promote learning by doing
  3. Elaborate input (do not simplify; do not rely solely on “authentic” texts). 
  4. Provide rich (not impoverished) input.
  5. Encourage inductive (“chunk”) learning.
  6. Focus on form (TBLT)
  7. Provide negative feedback
  8. Respect “learner syllabuses”/ developmental processes.
  9. Promote cooperative/ collaborative learning.
  10. Individualize instruction

Rod Ellis (2005) principles of instructed language learning 

  1. Instruction needs to ensure that learners develop both a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions and a rule-based competence
  2. Instruction needs to ensure that learners focus predominantly on meaning
  3. Instruction needs to ensure that learners also focus on form
  4. Instruction needs to be predominantly directed at developing implicit knowledge of the L2 while not neglecting explicit knowledge
  5. Instruction needs to take into account the learner’s ‘built-in syllabus’
  6. Successful instructed language learning requires extensive L2 input
  7. Successful instructed language learning also requires opportunities for Output
  8. The opportunity to interact in the L2 is central to developing L2 Proficiency
  9. Instruction needs to take account of individual differences in learners
  10. In assessing learners’ L2 proficiency it is important to examine free as well as controlled production

Nation's principles of vocab learning (2013)

1. Provide clear, simple, and brief explanations of meaning
2. Draw attention to the generalisable underlying meaning of a word
3. Give repeated attention to words
4. Help learners recognize definitions
5. Prioritise what should be explained about particular words
6. Help learners remember what is explained
7. Avoid interference from related words

Hunt and Beglar (1998) principles of vocab learning

1. Provide opportunities for the incidental learning of vocabulary.
2. Diagnose which of the 3000 most common words learners need to study.
3. Provide opportunities for the intentional learning of vocabulary.
4. Provide opportunities for elaborating word knowledge.
5. Provide opportunities for developing fluency with known vocabulary
6. Experiment with guessing from context.
7. Examine different types of dictionaries and teach students how to use them.

Lightbown generalizations drawn from research (1985)

  1. “Adults and adolescents can ‘acquire’ a second language.”
  2. “The learner creates a systematic interlanguage which is often characterized by the same systematic errors as the child learning the same language as the first language, as well as others which appear to be based on the learner's own native language”
  3. “There are predictable sequences in acquisition such that certain structures have to be acquired before others can be integrated”
  4. “Practice does not make perfect”
  5. “Knowing a language rule does not mean one will be able to use it in communicative interaction”
  6. “Isolated explicit error correction is usually ineffective in changing language behaviour”
  7. “For most adult learners, acquisition stops—'fossilizes'—before the learner has achieved native-like mastery of the target language”
  8. One cannot achieve native-like (or near native-like) command of a second language in one hour a day
  9. “The learner's task is enormous because language is enormously complex”
  10. “A learner's ability to understand language in a meaningful context exceeds his/her ability to comprehend decontextualized language and to produce language of comparable complexity and accuracy”

Palmer's principles of language teaching 

(1) The initial preparation of the student by the training of his spontaneous capacities for assimilating spoken language.
(2) The forming of new and appropriate habits and the utilization of previously formed habits. 
 (3) Accuracy in work in order to prevent the acquiring of bad habits. 
 (4) Gradation of the work in such a way as to ensure an ever-increasing rate of progress. 
 (5) Due proportion in the treatment of the various aspects and branches of the subject. 
 (6) The presentation of language-material in a concrete rather than in an abstract way. 
 (7) The securing and maintaining of the student’s interest in order to accelerate his progress. 
 (8) A logical order of progression in accordance with principles of speech-psychology. 
 (9) The approaching of the subject simultaneously from different sides by means of different and appropriate devices

Van Patten 5 implications of research

1. The more input the better
2. The more interaction the better
3. All learner production should be meaning based or communicative
4. Focus on Form should be meaning based or tied to input or communication
5. We should watch out for what we expect from our learners

Ortega 5 generalizations of interlanguage research (2009)

1. Instruction affect the route of L2 development in any fundamental way
2. Instruction can have some effect on processes, fostering some and inhibiting others
3. Instruction can be ineffective and even counterproductive when it ignores developmental readiness
4. Not all sequences present equal challenges for instruction
5. Instruction has a large positive effect on rate of development and ultimate attainment

Ferris’s principles of preparing teachers for written error correction

1. Teachers of L2 writers need to study aspects of grammar that are particularly problematic for non-native speakers of English.
2. Teachers of L2 writers need practice in recognizing and identifying errors in student writing.
3. Teachers of L2 writers need practice in developing lessons and teaching grammar points and editing strategies to their writing students.
4. Teachers of L2 writers need to understand the principles of second language acquisition and of composition theory.
5. Teachers of L2 writers should become familiar with language structures needed for different task types and academic disciplines.

Dornyei's 10 commandments of motivation 

1. Set a personal example with your own behaviour
2. Develop a good relationship with the learners
3. Increase the learners’ linguistic self-confidence
4. Make the language classes interesting
5. Promote learner autonomy
6. Personalise the learning process
7. Increase the learners’ goal-orientedness
8. Familiarize learners with the target culture
9. Create a pleasant relaxed atmosphere in the classroom
10. Present the tasks properly

Grabe and Stoller reading syllabus principles (2020)


1. Ask students to read a lot and often for well-defined purposes.
2. Incorporating deliberate practice into reading curricula supports reading skill development
3. Promote discussion about the text
4. Build students motivation to read
5. Teach vocabulary as the foundation to reading
6. Make students aware of textual features
7. Work on fluency
8. Teach learners to be strategic readers
9. Teach rather than test for main idea comprehension
10. Reading lessons should be pre- during post style
11. Texts should be selected based on students needs and ability
12. Digital literacy needs should be considered
13. Connect reading to writing
14. Assess their progress

10 comments:

  1. I missed Thornbury's list

    https://scottthornbury.wordpress.com/2015/03/01/s-is-for-sla/

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  2. This is really useful - congratulations on the book,too!

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  3. Love these lists, Russ - I'm putting out the link on my newsletter this week... hope it gets you some hits..

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  4. Replies
    1. This list is amazing!. There are so many interesting things to discuss and reflect upon.
      Thank you for sharing!

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  5. I have read many of these authors long time ago. It's excellent to have this list. I have highlighted many items. Thanks for sharing!

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    1. Thank you for this list of lists - it's what EFL should be about "in a nutshell" as well as being a Who's Who of language teaching! Am glad you have included Dornyei's principles of learner autonomy.
      For vocabulary you might include the findings of Norbert Schmitt, expecially his taxonomy of second language vocabulary learning strategies.
      I have just ordered your book and am looking forward to reading it!

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